HRM Strategy in a case study on IKEA Essay

1. Introduction The human resource function has undergone throughout its history major transformations and evolutions. Concepts managements have given way to others as imposed by the globalisation of markets and by a workforce more educated, more fluid and diverse. In this context of internationalisation, companies are anxious to take their benefit so as to seek the most advantageous model management. United States speak of mobilising and unifying model of human resources. Warner (2011) discusses about Japanese model that focuses on employee participation in company decisions. Finally, the Swedish model which works on the establishment of principle of consensus. Each of these models present advantages and disadvantages, strengths and weaknesses. What is the most interesting model of human resources management and more profitable for the organisation? , the models are they transferable and applicable to cultures and different to hand out? Can a European model applied in North America and a Japanese model in Europe? What adaptation the organisation needs to do to succeed in setting? To answer this question, I have chosen the Swedish multinational IKEA. The organisation was founded in 1943 by its principal designer Ingvar Kamprad in southern Sweden. The organisation has more than 325 stores, present in 44 countries around the world, and employ more than 140,000 employees. In Quebec, IKEA opened its first store in 1982 in town centre of Montreal, in 1986 it then moved to Cavendish in the borough of Saint-Laurent employed 13,000 people in North America. The main activity of the company is selling furniture and interior designs; it is considered a world leader in this niche market. In this analysis I will try to define the concept model of human resource management IKEA adopted for its store in Quebec, understand the reasons for this choice and the success of this model. Present the functions of HRM in this organisation and its evolution through the years and finish with a personal reflection on practice and business strategy in this area The IKEA case study discusses the aspects of HRM and the approaches adopted by IKEA focuses on nurturing and developing staff. In aiming to achieve corporate goals, this initiative has enable growth, innovation, creativeness and success of the organisation. In this case study, the analysis will focus on recruitment and selection, training, work organization and labour mobility. 2. HRM practices and systems in place In order to achieve strategic objectives and goals defined by the founder Ingvar Kamprad, IKEA made changes in its human resource practises and culture at work. The organisation has put in place a human resource management initiative that makes it have a competitive advantage. Furthermore IKEA human resource management style is largely described as incorporating the HRM strategy with its corporate strategy. In terms of the organisation’s business strategy, it can be analysed that it has evolved for the past few years, where new strategy such as innovative and creative designs has taken place for more affordable cost. 3. Measurement of Managers performance The Swedish company, committed towards its working time frames restructuration, identified as an essential point to measure its managers’ performance. â€Å"A senior officer should not be a doer, but a team coordinator,† says Marc Chousseaud, human resources director who is one of the twenty leaders judged. This assessment tool allows everyone to become aware of defects management. Inaugurated in March during a training session of leadership in management, the tool – called Index Coordination Skills – is part of the Anglo-Saxon Team Management System method. It comes in the form of a questionnaire with 66 points relating to 11 skills that the manager must show. Each of the twenty managerial staff was initially self-assessed and distributed the questionnaire to teammates at headquarters and in stores. The Director of Human Resources has been judged by his collaborators (five person) and nine human resources managers, all done in an anonymous way. This cross -evaluation overcomes personal conflicts and obtains the most objective assessment possible. 4. The eleven skills measured for executives Ikea The 360 ° evaluation of Ikea frames method, used by Team Management System, determines eleven core competencies: ââ€" ¶ Listening: the manager must listen before judging; ââ€" ¶ Communication: he regularly exchanges with members of the team; ââ€" ¶ Troubleshooting: it is available and ability to overcome obstacles; ââ€" ¶ Team development: it provides the balance of talents; ââ€" ¶ Division of labour: it distributes tasks based on skills and individual preferences; ââ€" ¶ Confidence: it promotes respect, understanding and trust; ââ€" ¶ Delegation: he says the work he should not personally perform; ââ€" ¶ Exemplary: he leads by example and is accepted by the team high standards of quality; ââ€" ¶ Determination of objectives it sets exciting challenges and exerts a constant pressure to improve performance; ââ€" ¶ Coordination: coordinate effectively and meet all the members of his team; ââ€" ¶ Participation: it involves team members in solving important problems. Companies are often considered unsatisfactory, both from the point of view of employers and that of employees as well. The definition of evaluation criteria also depends on the type of management practiced in the organization. In this context, the evaluation of the individual is in achieving or not objectives fixed. Schematically, the performance of an individual can be evaluated along three dimensions, Work done; Results of its work; and Personal characteristics. 5. Motivation Factor The motivation of people at work is a key factor in business success. The meaning of work and character of obligation are dependent on its culture, structures, social, and economic realities. The involvement and motivation cannot be obtained everywhere and always by the same means. Theories and methods used by business leaders and managers to boost motivation date forty years , while the conditions of work, nature of work and skills as well as the socio- economic conditions have changed considerably and change again. Mitchell (1982) states that to engage in certain specified behaviours, motivation is considered as the level which is chosen and desired by an individual, however Steers and Porter (1991) defined motivation to be a number of forces that are co-related thus causing people to have certain way of behaviour. The third strategy is the management of human resources in the store. 75% of employees work in IKEA stores. The primary role of the store management is to recruit, train and retain motivated employees. There are a number of key factors to effectively manage a store: a turnover rate of the size of the order of 20 % per year, a proportion of full- time should not be less than 40 % or 50 % of the workforce , a maintenance management staff for five years in the ideal, and in any case for at least three years . Depiction from IKEA case study highlights that the IKEA’s SHRM policies have led to significant fall in employee turnover, i.e. fall in employee turnover to 6% in 2001 to 56% in 2002, and only 35% in 2003, thus prominence rise drift in motivation of the employees to be a part of the organization above longer durations than before. Strong leadership, a focus on skills development and planning staff are key to the management of human resources. Maslow hierarchy of needs IKEA case study has showed the use of motivational techniques ranging between Maslow’s hierarchy of needs i.e.: psychological, security, safety, affection, self-esteem, and self-actualisation. 6. Conclusion IKEA’ culture notably values the employees; by providing enriched job the organisation promotes engagement amongst employee. IKEA should use effective communication as a mean to promote high level of engagement and interaction. Different methods of communication can motivate from low level to high level of interaction. In IKEA case study an important aspect has been noticed that is none other than the use of communication. Communication eventually improved the relationship between employees with employers and enhanced the ambition in terms of motivation and commitment of the staff towards the company. In conclusion, for IKEA to be successful on a long run, they need to promote employee engagement and interest towards the organisation. In order to generate and engage workforce, IKEA need to value its employees and show them that they genuinely care for their well-being. IKEA has proved about its concerns about care and employee flexibility where this initiative has contributed greatly in engaging employees in the organisation. 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Why not share! Share Email IKEA Strategic case study & analysis by Osama Albarrak 401535 views Ikea (Final Ppt) by Rahul S Karangutkar 70438 views IKEA Marketing Strategy Presentaion by Vikas Sonwane 78766 views Ikea by ruben_olmedo 385 views IKEA by Paulo Alves 24907 views IKEA PRESENTATION by Ysab Nacorda 37342 views Share SlideShare Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Embed Size (px) Show related SlideShares at end WordPress Shortcode Link $.ajax({ url : 'https://www.slideshare.net/pingback/embed_or_homepageplayerhits/3204920', type : 'GET', data : { ref : 'https://studymoose.com/hrm-strategy-in-a-case-study-on-ikea-essay' }, cache : false }); Ikea Case Studyfrom riddhimachopra http://www.staffs.ac.uk/schools/business/resits/postgrad/InternationalSupplyChainMgmtIKEACaseStudy.pdf http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/ikea/swot-analysis-and-sustainable-business-planning/introduction.html#axzz2yEzaqxUf http://www.slideshare.net/asad101/ikeacasestudy-12663939423849phpapp02 http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/emcc/labourmarket/greening/cases/ikeasweden.htm http://www.circleinternational.co.uk/CIRCLE/Strategy_files/ikea%20mrktswot.pdf

Gods or God?

1. Mary Lefkowitz responds to the charges by some secular commentators that religion â€Å"‘poisons’ human life and causes endless violence and suffering† by stating that the â€Å"poison isn't religion; it's monotheism. † 2. â€Å"Openness to discussion and inquiry† and â€Å"[r]espect for a diversity of viewpoints† are some attitudes that contributed to the Athenian idea of â€Å"the cooperative system of government †¦ called democracy. †3. The existence of many different gods offers a more reasonable explanation than monotheism of â€Å"the presence of evil and confusion in the world. † A mortal â€Å"may have had the support of one god but incur the enmity of another, who could attack when the patron god was away†; however in the monotheistic traditions, â€Å"God is omnipresent and always good† and â€Å"mortals must take the blame for whatever goes wrong,† even though God permits evil to exist in t he world he created. 4.The separation between humankind and the gods made it possible for humans â€Å"to speculate about the character and intentions of the gods. † Greek theology allowed people to ask hard questions and encouraged others to learn and to seek all the possible causes of events. Such questions brought philosophy and science to the world. 5. Lefkowitz writes, â€Å"Ancient Greek religion gives an account of the world that in many respects is more plausible than that offered by the monotheistic traditions.† In this context, â€Å"plausible† seems to mean â€Å"reasonable. † The Greek account may be more â€Å"plausible† because â€Å"Greek theology openly discourages blind confidence based on unrealistic hopes that everything will work out in the end. † 6. Lefkowitz certainly makes an excellent point and I definitely agree with her. Religion today seems to be focused too much on blind belief. Thinking seems to create a healthie r environment and some â€Å"healthy skepticism† would definitely be helpful currently in such a stubborn world.

Paragraphs Essay

Paragraph 1 A good introductory paragraph. This summarizes the next couple of paragraphs and also has a certain intriguing appeal – it arouses the reader’s curiosity and impels him to read further. The first sentence, however, could easily have been dropped – the second sentence would make a more compelling introduction to the essay. Paragraph 2 Here the writer develops on the thread of diversity. Note that there is an emphasis on aspects that are important to an MBA course (strong analytical skills, math skills, work experience). The writer shows effectively that she has not been ‘wasting her time’ – besides earning a degree, she has earned valuable work experience and done something for the environment. Volunteer work is a strong advantage while applying to an MBA course – universities love people with a social conscience! (To a lesser degree, this is true if you’re applying to other graduate courses as well, as long as you show that your primary interest, now and in the future, is in the field you are applying to). At the same time, it is important that this experience appears genuine – so before making tall claims, make sure that you can substantiate them, preferably by actually doing some volunteer / social work. The last sentence ties the paragraph together. The argu ment ‘my experiences have shaped me’ is invaluable IF you have strong or unusual life experiences and in some cases can also partially compensate for an average or below-average academic record. Paragraph 3 We come to a shift in focus with this paragraph. The writer wraps up the ‘diversity’ thread well. Saying that she has a diversity of experience to offer, ‘among other things’, is a good idea – it implies that there is much more to her, qualities and assets that could not be described here because of space limitations It might have been a better idea to begin the next topic – ‘most important achievement’ in a new paragraph. The abrupt change of subject has a slightly disconcerting effect here. Paragraph 4 While this paragraph is ostensibly an introduction to the problem handled by the writer, it also makes two points, subtly – 1) she had been working in the family firm on a continuous basis and kept her eyes open to spot an area of improvement, 2) she is familiar with popular software packages and very comfortable with a PC. Paragraph 5 The first sentence risks sounding slightly pompous, but the writer’s earnestness comes through after reading the paragraph as a whole. Paragraph 6 Comes across as systematic, organized and thorough. Good qualities for any graduate applicant. Paragraph 7 This paragraph shows considerable maturity and learning from the event. A problem is not solved when you have a solution for it – implementing the solution is usually the biggest hurdle. Also, she realizes that company-wide changes rarely yield instant results, and must be followed up over a period of time to evaluate their effects. The last two sentences show that this project also had an effect on the company management’s thinking. Paragraph 8 Reflective paragraph on what she has gained from the project. She certainly seems to have been the driving force behind the project and it’s an impressive achievement. It might have been a good idea, though, to put in a line or two about how she learned to co-ordinate between various entities to get her job done. Good ending paragraph. Summary This is a mature, well-written application essay. Some of the ideas here are gold mines for other essays – describing how she founding and helping run FOE could be a whole essay by itself, and can be used to show how she used leadership and team skills (see Essay 5 – coming soon). Her experience in assisting in the implementation of an ERP system can also be used as an example of team skills and project management skills. MBA applicants have to write a number of essays for each school. It helps to have a bank of experiences to draw on. Writing a series of essays also means that you can afford to have a limited scope for each essay, and go a little deeper. We do feel, however, that this essay was a tad too limited on the ‘candid description’ of the writer. Diversity of experiences is an excellent point to make, but one more paragraph on other aspects of the writer’s personality would have strengthened the essay. Each application essay should answer the question asked in full. Note, however, that this writer says nothing about any liabilities that might influence graduate work. We have a tricky issue here – must you mention some liabilities just because the question asks for them? Here the writer chooses to ignore them and concentrates on qualities that will be an asset for graduate work. It might have paid off in this case because the essay basically asks, ‘How well are you suited for graduate work’. In an essay question of the type, ‘Discuss your strengths and weaknesses’ such a strategy would not work. Nevertheless, it’s a tough choice to make

Men,women,sex and Darwin Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Men,women,sex and Darwin - Research Paper Example Sex-organs not only decide the gender of human beings but they make a remarkable impact on the social status, social responsibility, attitude, nature and even the destiny of human being. This is the reason why it is not possible to measure both men and women in the same balance scale. According to Hindu philosophy the one and only Supreme Almighty Power divided Himself into two forms, one was Shiva (masculine form) and another was Aadi (feminine form) and thus with formation of two genders the world became complete. Shiva stands for vigour and aggressiveness which is depicted in Indian classical dances whereas Aadi stands for delicacy endurance and optimum commitment. Thus Since ancient time man is regarded as a valiant creature and thus he started dominating the woman. It is the rule of the nature that the strong animal always rules the world. In course of civilization man thus took the charge of ultimate supremacy and thus the Patriarchal family emerged. Sexual desire is same both in man and woman but the desire of man was accepted by the society whereas woman had to conceal her desire all the time. In medieval India, the widowers could marry many times if they lost their wives, but woman, after the death of her husband was never allowed even to think of the other man. She had to live a renounced life even though she lost him at the very tender age of her. Traditionally woman plays the role of a giver whereas man is a taker as far as sexual affair is concerned. She is physically dependent so as financially and mentally. Till now women were financially dependent and this dependency reflects in their sexual life also. Many of the dependent women view that it is their duty to give pleasure to their ultimate God and their God is their husband. Their work all the time is to serve the husband and by default take the entire responsibility of bringing up the kids. The time changed but not the psyche. Yet women are mentally dependent that they cannot take any decision without the consent of any of the male members from the family. There are some women who earn a lot, sometimes more than their husband, but when question of utilizing that money comes, they cannot take their own decision, as they are not used to it. They have not been taught that they also have their views which can differ from their male counterparts. They even cannot spend a single penny without informing their husband. Another thing is that even though in modern world women also are earning and contributing financially in running the family, they get insecure if they find that their husbands are not earning and they are just sitting and living idle life. That is why the educated and earning ladies prefer to marry a rich man or high profiled person. On the contrary, most of the women do not contribute financially but they feel safe in the shadow of their husbands. Even if only man is the bread winner, they do not mind depending on him. So even while choosing the life partner wome n themselves have accepted their second position somewhere. They always want the man superior to them. It does not matter whether the woman is earning or not. Man by nature is polygamous and the circumstances also make him polygamous. He always enjoys lot of freedom and this freedom sometimes leads to promiscuous attitude. As far as love and sex are concerned, man gives importance to the physical beauty of the woman. In case of woman the sexual desire somewhat gets fed after giving the birth to the children. It is because the priorities of her life suddenly get changed and she fully concentrates herself in taking care of her babies. For attaining these ultimate objectives looks for stability from her man. So she always prefers to maintain the relationship with ambitious and rich man. By nature, she tends to fling themselves into the hands of man she loves. At the same time she expects that if she is committed to her husband completely, it is his duty to keep her and their children i n a sound condition always. Libido is the forth basic instinct

Bipolar Disorder Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Bipolar Disorder - Research Paper Example With bipolar disorder comes many complications, but there are equally as many treatments in the ongoing battle against this disorder. Causes and Risk Factors Bipolar disorder is among the emotional disorders that has no definite cause. Regardless of the advances made in understanding this disorder, concrete causes are still being questioned and further investigated. However, there is an array of potential causes and risk factors that are believed to play a role in the development of bipolar disorder. Such factors include biological differences, hormones, neurotransmitters, inherited traits, and an individual’s environment. Biological differences, hormones, and neurotransmitters are vital aspects to the workings of an individual’s mind. If even one detail is off mark, the individual can experience a plethora of disorders, including bipolar disorder (Miklowitz & Cicchetti 229). It has been noted that many people who have been diagnosed with bipolar disorder have physical alterations to their brains that do not exist in the brains of people who do not have the disorder. It has not been determined as to what causes these changes, but they are one of the characteristics that many bipolar disorder sufferers have in common. Likewise, an imbalance of neurotransmitters, which occur naturally in the brain, are thought to play a part in the causation of bipolar disorder. This imbalance can come in the form of too many or not enough neurotransmitters, or neurotransmitters that are not reacting as they should. The same can be said about an imbalance of hormones. Should an individual have too many or too few hormones, they risk developing bipolar disorder. Since these two features of the brain are important in defining one’s mood, any off-set can trigger many mood disorders, including bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder is also believed to be a result of genetics, though the genes connected to the disorder are still to be determined. All the same, it has been shown that bipolar disorder is more common in individuals whose blood family, such as a parent or sibling, has a history of bipolar disorder or other mood disorders. Indeed, if there is a history of mood disorders, the risk of an individual developing the disorder themselves increases significantly. This connection has become too common to be just a coincidence, and doctors and scientists continue to look for the gene that may be linked to bipolar disorder. Finally, an individual’s environment is thought to be associated with the onset of bipolar disorder. â€Å"Genes are the bullets, but environment is the trigger† (Grieco & Edwards 63) is the agreement when it comes to most mood disorders. An individual might be prone to bipolar disorder, but they may not show symptoms of this disorder until their environment takes its toll. Stress, abuse, or a significant loss can trigger the start of bipolar disorder. Someone may have the makings for a mood disorder, though qu ite a few people go their entire lives without realizing it because they are not subjected to certain trigger events in their lives. There are also factors that can increase one’s risk of developing bipolar disorder. As previously mentioned, having blood relatives who have been diagnosed with a mood disorder increases one’s chances of developing bipolar disorder. Being subjected to periods of high stress or major life changes can drastically alter

Computer Networking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Computer Networking - Essay Example Hence, the document improves market benefits for the company, as well as reducing costs. It is anticipated that periodic evaluations of the IT policy will reveal that the majority of staff will find IT systems supporting improved management, control, and/or organizational planning, which provide staff with a consistent work environment, and encourage the company's culture of collaboration, inclusiveness and continual improvement. Other benefits to be expected form the Policy are enhanced team-spirit; consistency in work performance; staff confidence in the reliability and dependability of co-workers; increased employee satisfaction and decreased perceptions of stress; and improved employee moral and training programs; as well as improved customer satisfaction. Logging and accounting will serve important purposes within the Policy, in that they will aid in the management, tracking, accountability of use and misuse detection. The logging will especially assist with user monitoring and debugging of the IT systems. Logs can also help to identify and track the intruder if one does get through and provide additional data for other research processes. The Policy will also state the regular frequency of log review and evaluation. The company will use a single firewall program on all its workstations as well as the same version of anti-virus software. The firewall limit exposure to threats from the Internet and to mitigate the client's risk as it inhibits network traffic that does not meet the security policy (e.g. hackers). The anti-virus software and the frequency of mandatory definition updates will be outline in the Policy. Viruses are able to destroy critical client data and other company files. The system at Harder and Harder is currently compromised by a worm virus (warez) that has been giving the hackers access and privileges of an authorised network user. The anti-virus software can attack the future viruses and so minimize the risk. However, updated virus definitions are essential to ensure that the software is not rendered useless. And so the Policy clearly addresses these issues. The Policy will aim to discourage employees to use the network in ad-hoc communications, such as with wireless networks . A hacker is able to attack this system due to the lack of authentication. Ad-hoc networks can allow a hacker to execute man in the middle attacks, denial of service, and/or compromise systems.Further, the Policy will emphasise education, awareness and continual improvement among staff. Perception surveys of employee satisfaction, as well as outcome evaluations will be reviewed to determine degree of IT security consciousness and knowledge and compliance with IT policy. The Policy will stipulate ways that security awareness will be increased and maintained, for example through workshops, posters, or in newsletters. Studies show that staffs are more likely to comply with Policy and to make more of an effort to secure or at least limit behaviours that will put the network at risk.The Policy will introduce inclusive decision making staff meetings to come up with IT security solutions. In a collaborative forum staffs can suggest ways to limit

The concepts of supply chains and distribution channels Essay

The concepts of supply chains and distribution channels - Essay Example However, initially, the concepts and practices were not clearly spelt out as it is now. Most of the activities were carried out in an ad hoc manner (Lavassani, Movahedi, & Kumar, 2009, pp. 85–98). Integration of distribution and warehousing (logistics) The concept of supply chain in the company has evolved over time. Most of the segments of supply chain were loosely interconnected. However, as the company developed it had to integrate the logistics, distribution and warehousing together to take advantage of efficiency that supply chains provided. When the company realized that, it had to upgrade its operations due to efficiency brought about by the integration. The company decided to merge the two concepts to form logistics. This made the border between warehousing and distribution became transparent. However, the two ends were still loose, and the management tries to consider making the links stronger and increased the level of resource sharing. This was also coupled with red uced costs and time to market. This was the beginning of evolution in the company (Mentzer, et al, 2001, pp. 1–25) Integration if logistics with production and purchasing The company later decided to optimize the advantages of integration. The company integrated purchasing, distribution, warehousing, and production. The concept worked out right, and the saving was exceedingly. The four functions were integrated, and the core activities under each concept were conducted under the same roof. This was the birth of supply chain in this company. The company managed to align the separate function in the sequence bellow:    Leveraging lean and agile The concept made the company too agile. This is one thing the company has been searching for, the supply chain concept provided the agility required by the company and the company optimized its supply chain concept and leveraged its production to achieve the required competitive age. However, this conceit is long overdue in the company . This has also contributed to the company profitability as the company became more agile. The demanding market and growing competition made the company more profitable due to its agility. The comment managed to increase its product lines and categories (Larson, &, Halldorsson, 2004, pp. 17-31). According the to Kouvelis, Chambers, &, Wang, (2006, pp. 449–469), the volatile and less predictable market just made competition better, and visibility of the company amidst the masses was achieved through agility and leanness Lean concept The modern SCM in companies must be lean; the concepts of leanness help the company to hold the required stock only and assets that can slow down the response time and increase cost are shed. These concepts offer sufficient service levels that can meet growing demand in companies. As a product portfolio, companies must know how to valance between lean and agile. By fine tuning, this company achieves an optimal product portfolio. The different produ ction, which is in the company portfolio, must be treated accordingly (Movahedi, Lavassani, &, Kumar, 2009, pp. 75–88). characteristics of a contemporary Supply Chain concept Lean: The company aims at forecasting at the generic level Economic order Quantities Maximized efficiencies Agile: Demand driven operations effectively Localized Configuration Maximized effectiveness   Then backbone of stable agile and lean supply chain is operations efficiency that brings about6 sustainable competitive advantage. This is based on the supply chain concept that offers a sufficient service level in the face of growing demand   (2) Identify and describe the supply chain and distribution channels

Reaction paper about Blackfish documentary Essay

Reaction paper about Blackfish documentary - Essay Example As such, the theory postulates that crime and deviance occur because of the lack of adequate constraints. The lack of clear laws that govern the handling and use of wild animals is a fundamental factor that could have led to the criminal behavior of the management of SeaWorld. Orcas are dangerous animals belonging to the oceanic dolphin family. While dolphins are always friendly to humans, the animals are temperamental and their behaviors are always unpredictable. Killer whale is among the largest of the family. They have teeth and are always aggressive especially when agitated. Additionally, the animals are large and travel for up to 160 kilometers in a day. The animals therefore require adequate space and depth to move and live freely. The management of SeaWorld has made a number of decisions some of which may have led to the death of the three individuals killed by the killer whales. The need for increased profitability compelled the management to overlook the safety of the employees and freedom of the animals. Additionally, the pressure to deliver is a fundamental determinant that could have compelled the trainer, Dawn Brancheau, to stress the animal thereby causing his death. Ever since the release of the Blackfish film, SeaWorld has promised to make a number of changes. On 13 May 2014, The Dodo ran a story that explained the spotting of a 103-year-old whale moving around the West Coast of Canada with her children and grandchildren. The spotting of the whale would cause problems for SeaWorld. The company had claimed that the life span of orca to be around 20 years. SeaWorld made such claims to justify the fact that most of their orcas die before reaching the age of 20 owing to the deplorable treatment and the environment in captivity. The company has since promised to increase the capacity of its tanks in order to provide the animals with more space Despite the changes, the company promises

Paper assignment 3# Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Paper assignment 3# - Essay Example The setting of the novel is in New York which is a diverse community with people from different class division, races and nationalities. Corrigan is placed amidst all the types of people in New York and undertakes the role of helping and playing guardian for them even for those who are not part of his faith. As a young man, the readers are introduced to a child who would sneak out at night just to be able to help and spend time with the drugs addicts, homeless and the prostitutes. After the death of his mother, he is compelled to leave Ireland due to his devotion to help those who are suffering and moves to New York following the 9/11 attack. Both his physical and spiritual labor are directed towards helping those in different types of difficulties. Corrigan finds excellence in difficulty and suffering of people through despair and trauma, McCann says, ‘So you force yourself into a position of difficulty, because it seems to me that we have forgotten†¦ But there’s s omething really beautiful in the notion of difficulty.’ By being an Irish catholic, Corrigan has also been used a representation of the theme of religion. As a central personality in New York, his vocation has been used to show the act of redemption for the church even after going through many challenges and scandals. His religious role is used in the narrative to reconcile God and the reality of New York streets. As such, Corrigan is placed in a setting of the everyday life filled with tragedies and horrors in the streets of New York yet, he is expected to come out after defeating evil. As such, although he may go through darkness and end up bruised and damaged, the light at the end of the tunnel will make God more believable to the people he is interacting with. Religion and hope are themes which are intertwined in order to draw people closer to God. Corrigan gives hope to the people affected by different social evils

Just answer the Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Just answer the Question - Essay Example It is undoubted that human beings have played a significant role in climate change leading to depredation of the biosphere and extinction of vast species of flora and fauna. With no qualm, the earth’s biodiversity faces constant threats that would merit some intervention. However, time is a healing factor. Let the earth be for the next one million years and the current tribulations it faces will be past tense, safely buried in the world of history. If the world needs no saving, what does? Humanity is obviously under threat. Human beings are headed for extinction taking many more species with them besides the ones that have already disappeared. The human race population is fast skyrocketing and will soon surpass the carrying capacity of the earth (Cobb Para 5). Human activities such as burning of fossil fuels releasing excess carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, thus accentuating global warming can only do more harm to humans and other species essential for the continuity of humanity. Consequently, man’s efforts to curb adverse phenomena such as global warming are focused more on saving humanity rather than the world. Therefore, the world needs no saving as does humanity because it can cope with its tribulations over

Diwali Essay Example for Free

Diwali Essay Deepavali or Diwali, popularly known as the festival of lights, is a five-day Hindu festival[3] which starts on Dhanteras, celebrated on the thirteenth lunar day of Krishna paksha (dark fortnight) of the Hindu calendar month Ashwin and ends on Bhaubeej, celebrated on second lunar day of Shukla paksha of the Hindu calendar month Kartik. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra. In the Gregorian calendar, Diwali falls between mid-October and mid-November. Diwali is an official holiday in India,[4] Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad Tobago, Suriname, Malaysia, Singapore and Fiji. For Hindus, Diwali is one of the most important festivals of the year and is celebrated in families by performing traditional activities together in their homes. For Jains, Diwali marks the attainment of moksha or nirvana by Mahavira in 527 BC.[5][6] Arya Samajists, celebrate this day as Death Anniversary of Swami Dayanand Saraswati. They also celebrate this day as Shardiya Nav-Shasyeshti. The name Diwali or Divali is a contraction of deepavali which translates into row of lamps.[7] Diwali involves the lighting of small clay lamps filled with oil to signify the triumph of good over evil.[8] These lamps are kept on during the night and ones house is cleaned, both done in order to make the goddess Lakshmi feel welcome.[9] Firecrackers are burst because it is believed that it drives away evil spirits.[10][11][12] During Diwali, all the celebrants wear new clothes and share sweets and snacks with family members and friends. The festival starts with Dhanteras on which most Indian business communities begin their financial year. The second day of the festival is called the Naraka Chaturdasi. Amavasya, the third day of Diwali, marks the worship of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. The fourth day of Diwali is known as Kartika Shudda Padyami. The fifth day is referred to as Yama Dvitiya, and on this day sisters invite their brothers to their homes. Deepavali or Diwali, popularly known as the festival of lights, is a five-day Hindu festival[3] which starts on Dhanteras, celebrated on the thirteenth lunar day of Krishna  paksha (dark fortnight) of the Hindu calendar month Ashwin and ends on Bhaubeej, celebrated on second lunar day of Shukla paksha of the Hindu calendar month Kartik. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra. In the Gregorian calendar, Diwali falls between mid-October and mid-November. Diwali is an official holiday in India,[4] Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad Tobago, Suriname, Malaysia, Singapore and Fiji. For Hindus, Diwali is one of the most important festivals of the year and is celebrated in families by performing traditional activities together in their homes. For Jains, Diwali marks the attainment of moksha or nirvana by Mahavira in 527 BC.[5][6] Arya Samajists, celebrate this day as Death Anniversary of Swami Dayanand Saraswati. They also celebrate this day as Shardiya Nav-Shasyeshti. The name Diwali or Divali is a contraction of deepavali which translates into row of lamps.[7] Diwali involves the lighting of small clay lamps filled with oil to signify the triumph of good over evil.[8] These lamps are kept on during the night and ones house is cleaned, both done in order to make the goddess Lakshmi feel welcome.[9] Firecrackers are burst because it is believed that it drives away evil spirits.[10][11][12] During Diwali, all the celebrants wear new clothes and share sweets and snacks with family members and friends. The festival starts with Dhanteras on which most Indian business communities begin their financial year. The second day of the festival is called the Naraka Chaturdasi. Amavasya, the third day of Diwali, marks the worship of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. The fourth day of Diwali is known as Kartika Shudda Padyami. The fifth day is referred to as Yama Dvitiya, and on this day sisters invite their brothers to their homes. It begins in late Ashvin (between September and October) and ends in early Kartika (between October and November). The days in Ashvin are in the Krishna Paksha (dark fortnight) of that month, while the days in Kartik are in its Shukla Paksha (bright fortnight). The first day is Dhan Teras. The last day is Yama  Dvitiya, which signifies the second day of the light half of Kartika. Each day of Diwali marks one celebration of the six principal stories associated with the festival. Hindus have several significant events associated with Diwali: The return of Rama after 14 years of Vanvas (exile). To welcome his return, diyas (ghee lamps) are lit in total of 14. The killing of Narakasura: Celebrated as Naraka Chaturdashi, one day before Diwali, it commemorates the killing of the evil demon Narakasura, who wreaked havoc. In different versions, either Krishna or Krishnas wife Satyabhama killed Narakasura during the Dwapara yuga. Other events associated with Diwali include: Return of Pandavas after 12 years of Vanvas and one year of agyatavas (living incognito). Diwali being the festival of lights, across India people celebrate it via symbolic diyas or kandils (colourful paper lanterns) as an integral part of Diwali decorations. Diwali celebrations are spread over five days, from Dhanteras to Bhaiduj. In some places like Maharashtra it starts with Vasu Baras. All the days except Diwali are named according to their designation in the Hindu calendar. The days are: 1.Govatsa Dwadashi or Vasu Baras (27 Ashvin or 12 Krishna Paksha Ashvin): Go means cow and vatsa means calf. Dwadashi or Baras means the 12th day. On this day the cow and calf are worshiped. The story associated with this day is that of King Prithu, son of the tyrant King Vena. Due to the ill rule of Vena, there was a terrible famine and earth stopped being fruitful. Prithu chased the earth, who is usually represented as cow, and ‘milked’ her, meaning that he brought prosperity to the land. 2.Dhanatrayodashi or Dhan teras or Dhanwantari Triodasi (28 Ashvin or 13 Krishna Paksha Ashvin): Dhana means wealth and Trayodashi means 13th day. This day falls on the 13th day of the second half of the lunar month. It is considered an auspicious day for buying utensils and gold, hence the name ‘Dhana’. This day is regarded as the Jayanti (Birth Anniversary) of God Dhanvantari, the Physician of Gods, who came out during Samudra manthan, the churning of the great ocean by the gods and the demons. 3.Naraka Chaturdashi (29 Ashvin or 14 Krishna Paksha Ashvin): Chaturdashi is the 14th day This was the day on which the demon Narakasura was killed by Krishna – an incarnation of Vishnu. It signifies the victory of good over evil and light over darkness (Gujarati: Kali Chaudas, Rajasthan : Roop Chaudas). In southern India, this is the actual day of festivities. Hindus wake up before dawn, have a fragrant oil bath and dress in new clothes. They light small lamps all around the house and draw elaborate kolams /rangolis outside their homes. They perform a special puja with offerings to Krishna or Vishnu, as he liberated the world from the demon Narakasura on this day. It is believed that taking a bath before sunrise, when the stars are still visible in the sky is equivalent to taking a bath in the holy Ganges. After the puja, children burst firecrackers heralding the defeat of the demon. As this is a day of rejoicing, many will have very elaborate breakfasts and lunches and meet family and friends. 4.Lakshmi Puja (30 Ashvin or 15 Krishna Paksha Ashvin): Lakshmi Puja marks the most important day of Diwali celebrations in North India. Hindu homes worship Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, and Ganesh, the God of auspicious beginnings also known as the remover of obastacles, and then light deeyas (little clay pots) in the streets and homes to welcome prosperity and well-being. 5.Bali Pratipada and Govardhan Puja (1 Kartika or 1 Shukla Paksha Kartika) : In North India, this day is celebrated as Govardhan Puja, also called Annakoot, and is celebrated as the day Krishna – an incarnation of god Vishnu – defeated Indra and by the lifting of Govardhana hill to save his kinsmen and cattle from rain and floods. For Annakoot, large quantities of food are decorated symbolising the Govardhan hill lifted by Krishna. In Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, it is celebrated as Bali-Pratipada or Bali Padyami. The day commemorates the victory of Vishnu in his dwarf form Vamana over the demon-king Bali, who was pushed into the patala. In Maharashtra, it is called Padava or Nava Diwas (new day). Men present gifts to thei r wives on this day. It is celebrated as the first day of the Vikram Samvat calendar, in Gujarat. 6.Yama Dwitiya or Bhaiduj (also Bhayyaduj, Bhaubeej or Bhayitika) (2 Kartika or 2 Shukla Paksha Kartika): on this day, brothers and sisters meet to express love and affection for each other (Gujarati: Bhai Bij, Bengali: Bhai Phota). It is based on a story when Yama, lord of Death, visited his sister Yami (the river Yamuna). Yami welcomed Yama with an Aarti  and they had a feast together. Yama gave a gift to Yami while leaving as a token of his appreciation. So, the day is also called YAMA DWITIYA. Brothers visit their sisters’ place on this day and usually have a meal there, and also give gifts to their sisters Goddess Lakshmi Puja[edit source] Main article: Lakshmi Puja Diwali marks the end of the harvest season in most of India. Farmers give thanks for the bounty of the year gone by, and pray for a good harvest for the year to come. Traditionally this marked the closing of accounts for businesses dependent on the agrarian cycle, and is the last major celebration before winter. Lakshmi symbolises wealth and prosperity, and her blessings are invoked for a good year ahead. There are two legends that associate the worship of Lakshmi on this day. According to the first legend, on this day, Lakshmi emerged from Kshira Sagar, the Ocean of Milk, during the great churning of the oceans, Samudra manthan. The second legend (more popular in western India) relates to the Vamana avatar of the big three Vishnu, the incarnation he assumed to kill the king Bali. On this day, Vishnu came back to his abode the Vaikuntha; so those who worship Lakshmi receive the benefit of her benevolent mood, and are blessed with mental, physical and material well-being.[13] As per spiritual references, on this day Lakshmi-panchayatan enters the Universe. Vishnu, Indra, Kubera, Gajendra and Lakshmi are elements of this panchayatan (a group of five). The tasks of these elements are: Lakshmi: Divine Energy (Shakti) which provides energy to all the above activities. Vishnu: Happiness (happiness and satisfaction) Kubera: Wealth (generosity; one who shares wealth) Indra: Opulence (satisfaction due to wealth) Gajendra: Carries the wealth Saraswati: Knowledge Diwali is not only celebrated by Hindus; it is somewhat also a Sikh festival as it marks the Bandi Chhor Divas festival. Spiritual significance[edit source] While Diwali is popularly known as the festival of lights, the most significant spiritual meaning behind it is the awareness of the inner light. Central to Hindu mythology is the belief that there is something beyond the physical body and mind which is pure, infinite, and eternal, called the Atman. The celebration of Diwali as the victory of good over evil, refers to the light of higher knowledge dispelling all ignorance, the ignorance that masks ones true nature, not as the body, but as the unchanging, infinite, immanent and transcendent reality. With this awakening comes compassion and the awareness of the oneness of all things (higher knowledge). This brings anand (joy or peace). Just as we celebrate the birth of our physical being, Diwali is the celebration of this Inner Light. While the story behind Diwali and the manner of celebration varies from region to region (festive fireworks, worship, lights, sharing of sweets), the essence is the same – to rejoice in the Inner Light (Atman) or the underlying Reality of all things (Brahman).

The Concept of Luxury Brands Essay Example for Free

The Concept of Luxury Brands Essay Paper about the Definition and Categorization of Luxury Products and Brands consisting of a Taxonomy of Luxury and a Handbook for the Creation of Luxury Products and Brands This paper defines both luxury products and brands and also distinguishes similar concepts such as premium and masstige and differentiates between major types of luxury products and brands such as accessible vs. exceptional luxury products and connoisseur vs. Star brands. In that way, it should create a better understanding of what actually constitutes luxury products and brands, and thus should be useful for both researchers and managers within the field of luxury brand management. As luxury is constantly on the move, this paper will be constantly up-dated. Therefore, please feel free to send me your feedback and ideas. The latest publication can be foundhere and previous publications below. According to its objectives, the paper is split into the following two major components: Taxonomy of Luxury: The tasks of distinguishing between luxury and non-luxury and of categorizing luxury into different types reminds one of the work of taxonomists, who try to order organisms into groups based on their similarities and differences. The classification of organisms is not that simple, not only because of their vast variety, but also because boundaries between species are diffuse. However, similarly to the taxonomy of organisms, the taxonomy of luxury should provide a definition of luxury products and luxury brands that, for any products and brands, allows one to decide as best as possible if they are part of what is meant by these terms. In addition, the taxonomy should give an overview of the major types of luxury products and brands, as well as of similar concepts. Handbook for the Creation of Luxury Products and Brands: For mankind, classification had to be carried out from the very beginning, because the accurate identification of food, predators, mates, fuel, building materials etc. was crucial to survival. This demonstrates that classification also leads to a better understanding about the objects of investigation. Besides their value in the classification of luxury, the characteristics of luxury products and brands thus also help to develop an understanding about how they are actually created. As this is a distinctive area of application, the explanations about their characteristics are consolidated in a separate part of the paper, which should serve as a handbook for the creation of luxury products and brands. PART I LUXONOMY The task of distinguishing between luxury and non-luxury and of categorizing luxury into different types is reminiscent of the job of taxonomists, who try to order organisms into groups based on their similarities and differences (Stace 1991, p. 5). Taxonomy is more generally used today for classifications of any types of objects of investigation, including, for instance, shopper motivations (Westbrook and Black 1985), vehicles (Pirotte and Massart 2004, p. 2) and luxury consumers (Han et al. 2010, p. 16). This part of the paper presents a taxonomy of luxury particularly for use within the field of luxury brand management. Starting from a basic definition of luxury, it distinguishes between the major understandings of luxury put forth by different areas of research, defines luxury products and brands and gives an overview of the major types of luxury products and brands and also of similar concepts. The definitions of luxury products and luxury brands should allow one to decide as best as possible, for any products and brands, if they are part of what is meant by these terms. 1. The Basic Definition of Luxury 1. 1. The Necessity-Luxury Continuum Despite confusions, researchers across all disciplines share a basic understanding of luxury. To begin with, luxury is defined as something that is more than necessary (e. g. by Bearden and Etzel 1982, p. 184; Muhlmann 1975, p. 69; Reith and Meyer 2003, p. 10; Sombart 1922, p. 85). In contrast to necessity, some authors also characterize luxury by non-necessity and superfluity (e. g. by De Barnier et al. 2006, p. 5; Dubois et al. 2001, p. 15; Csaba 2008, p. 3; Geerts and Veg 2010, p. 2; Jackel and Kochhan 2000, p. 75). The distinction between necessity and luxury is based on the availability or exclusivity of resources. While necessities are possessed by virtually everyone, luxuries are available exclusively to only a few people or at least only on rare occasions (Bearden and Etzel 1982, p. 184). Bearden and Etzel (1982, p. 186) imagined the necessity-luxury dimension as a continuum ranging from absolute necessity to absolute luxury. Accordingly, they developed a six-point Likert scale ranging from a necessity for everyone’ to a luxury for everyone in order to measure the luxuriousness of a number of product categories (see also Kemp 1998, p.594). Today however, people spend the biggest portion of their income on goods that satisfy more than their necessary or basic human needs, but most of these goods might still not be considered a luxury. Therefore, Chaudhuri (1998, p. 158 et seqq. ) criticized the necessity-luxury continuum produced by Bearden and Etzel (1982) and measured necessity and luxury as two separate variables on a seven-point agree/disagree scale (This product is a luxury [necessity] for me. ) No significant relationships were found among these variables (p.163), which supports the approach of these authors. However, there were goods with low ratings on both variables such as cornflakes, frozen dinners, and potato chips, indicating the need for another category of ordinary goods. Bearden and Etzel (1982, p. 186) actually already considered this category, as they defined luxuries as not needed for ordinary, day-to-day living. ’ Instead of subsuming ordinary goods into the necessity category, the scale can also be extended to the necessity-ordinary-luxury scale, which might be more intuitive for today’s consumers. In very old lexica, luxury is defined as anything that is more than necessary (e. g. Brockhaus 1846, p. 179). After the increase in the standard of living over many social classes in the late 19th century, the definition was further narrowed by luxury being also that which is more than ordinary (e. g. Meyers 1890, p. 1035). Since then, most lexica share the notion of luxury as anything that is more than necessary and ordinary (e. g. Meyers 1995, p. 189). However, not everything that is neither necessary nor ordinary is a luxury. For instance, most people rarely have moths in their wardrobe, but still do not consider this extraordinary occurrence a luxury. This demonstrates that the characterization of luxury as non-necessary and superfluous can be misleading because luxury is always meant to satisfy some human needs and desires (Berry 1994, p. 4 et seqq. ; Geerts and Veg 2010, p. 2; Giacalone 2006, p. 34; Goody 2006, p. 341). Accordingly, luxury is also associated with dream (e. g. by Seringhaus 2002, p. 5; Dubois and Paternault 1995, p. 69). While necessary and ordinary goods are also desirable (or required), a study by Kemp (1998, p. 599; 603) points out an essential difference: similar items [are] more likely to be perceived as a luxury if they [produce] a positive effect for the recipient than if they [relieve] a state of discomfort [†¦ so that luxuries are†¦] positive instead of negative reinforcements. Therefore, Kemp (1998, p. 592) compares the necessity-luxury continuum with the hierarchy of needs produced by Maslow (1970), which ranges from basic physiological needs such as hunger (necessities) up to needs of self-actualization (luxuries). These facts demonstrate that the luxuriousness of any resource is not only based on its availability, but also on peoples’ desire for it. Accordingly, the basic definition of luxury may be summarized as follows: Luxury is anything that is desirable and more than necessary and ordinary. | Luxury usually refers to single items, in which case it is described as qualitative luxury. In contrast, quantitative luxury refers to the profusion of an excessive amount of resources, which are not necessarily luxurious. For instance, this includes lighting a cigar with a handful of matches (Sombart 1922, p.86). 1. 2. The Relativity of Luxury The decision of what is desirable and more than necessary and ordinary is relative and depends on the perspective (Buttner et al. 2006, p. 9; Jackel and Kochhan 2000, p. 75; Kapferer 2008, p. 96; Nyeck 2004, p. 1; Sombart 1922, p. 85; Valtin 2004, p. 20 et seqq. ). The relativity of luxury splits into a regional, temporal, economic, cultural and situational relativity, which is illustrated in figure 1 and explained below. Regional relativity refers to the classification of resources on the necessity-luxury continuum depending on their local availability. Some goods are widely available and worth very little in some regions, but acquire luxury status by virtue of their rarity in another environment (Merki 2002, p. 85; Reith and Meyer 2003, p. 10). For instance, in the 19th century, kola nuts could be freely collected in the forests of West Africa and became a luxury in Europe, where they were used for kola biscuits and kola wine (Goody 2006, p. 347). In addition, a sunny day at the beach might be considered a luxury in most parts of Europe, while it is almost an everyday experience for people living in Miami. Temporal relativity refers to changes in the perception of the luxuriousness of resources over time, which are based on changes in their availability and desirability (Fuehrer 2008, p. 214; Kisabaka 2001, p. 119 et seqq. ; Matsuyama 2002, p. 1038). The major causes of these changes are technological progress and societal trends (see also Konig 2002, p. 118). Technological progress is also the main reason for the decreasing relevance of the regional relativity of luxury goods. For instance, modern production methods enabled the development from luxury kola to mass-marketed Coca-Cola (Goody 2006, p.348). There are many other examples of the metamorphosis of luxury goods into mass market commodities such as butter, chocolate, coffee, spices, sugar, and tea (Reith and Meyer 2003, p. 10). This process runs especially fast for technical products, as exemplified by TVs, PCs, and mobile phones. However, this process can also run in the opposite direction, as seen with some historically ordinary resources, such as clean air, silence and space, which have become increasingly rare, at least in some regions (see also Koschel 2005, p. 41). Temporal relativity represents the particular character of luxury as being not stable and constantly changing over time (Kapferer 2008, p. 96; see also Jackel and Kochhan 2000, p. 89; Mortelmans 2005, p. 504). Economic relativity refers to differences in peoples’ perceptions of luxuriousness depending on their access to resources (Kapferer 2008, p. 96; Kisabaka 2001, p. 121; Meffert and Lasslop 2003, p. 4; Vickers and Renand 2003, p. 461). While mostpeople consider a watch costing 50â‚ ¬ as an ordinary item, there are some who see it as a luxury, and still others who would not even regard a watch costing 5,000â‚ ¬ as a luxury. Economic relativity also refers to differences among countries with varying states of economic development. For instance, cars are generally considered as ordinary goods in Western Europe, but remain a luxury in developing countries (Christodoulides et al. 2009, p. 397; Matsuyama 2002, p. 1038). Culutural relativity: In any cultural context, luxury refers to something that exceeds necessity and ordinariness. However, in contrast to the previous categories, cultural relativity does not refer to the availability, but to the desirability of resources to people depending on their culture. The same resource might be considered luxurious in one culture, but just ordinary or even useless and undesirable in another culture (Kapferer and Bastien 2009b, p. 314; Kemp 1998, p. 604; Kisabaka 2001, p. 121 et seqq. ). For instance, champagne can be considered as a luxury in European countries, but generally is not desired in Islamic societies. The same is true for a Lamborghini from the perspective of someone from a secluded Amazon tribe (Berthon et al. 2009, p. 49). However, Mortelmans (2005, p. 497) argues that every social group can be said to have its own luxury. There are culture-specific symbols of good taste and luxury, which are determined by the elite of any cultural group or subculture and are used for social distinction (Bourdieu 1994, p. 64 et seqq. ; Fuehrer 2008, p. 135 et seqq. ; Merki 2002, p. 90; Reith and Meyer 2003, p. 24). While gold teeth grills are considered a luxury in the hip-hop scene, the majority of people do not find them desirable. The preferences of luxury are rooted to a great extent in cultural values (Kemp 1998, p. 596; Sombart 1922, p.87), which differ by demographic variables such as gender, age, and education (see studies by Hudders and Pandelaere 2009, p. 6 et seqq. ; Jackel and Kochhan 2000, p. 75). However, the members of a cultural group also differ in their knowledge of the symbols of luxury (Kisabaka 2001, p. 121). These facts demonstrate that there are also differences in the perception of luxury among the members of a cultural group. Therefore, Berthon et al. (2009, p. 47) state that luxury has an intensely individual component as well: what might be luxury to one person will be commonplace, or perhaps even irrelevant and valueless, to another. As the culture-specific symbols of luxury are a result of social learning, it must also be possible to influence peoples’ ideas of luxury using marketing measures (Jackel and Kochhan 2000, p. 81). For instance, De Beers managed to position diamonds as a symbol of love and luxury. Situational relativity implies that the same resource could be differently classified as necessary, ordinary or luxurious depending on the circumstances. For instance, ordinary food might become luxurious if a person has not eaten it for a long time, and any luxury food could be considered ordinary after eating it for several days (Kemp 1998, p.598). 1. 3. General Perspective for the Definition of Luxury These types of relativity can be used as follows to determine a general perspective from which luxury should be defined, particularly with regard to the requirements within the field of luxury brand management: Regional relativity: Due to the globalization of business, especially of the luxury industry, luxury should be defined from a global perspective, which leads to the omission of regional specialties from the definition of luxury for the sake of a broad international coverage. Temporal relativity: The definition of luxury should refer to the present. Economic relativity: Luxury should not be defined from the perspective of the very poor or the very rich, but of the entire society of developed regions. Despite the differences in the notion of luxury between the poor and the rich, Kemp (1998, p. 596) found that to a large extent, a gross-societal consensus exists concerning the classification of goods as either luxury or non-luxury. Culutural relativity: The desirability of resources and the appearance of luxury are determined by the upper class, which also includes the relatively homogeneous segment of the global elite (Vickers and Renand 2003, p.461). Consequently, hip hop-style gold teeth grills cannot be considered luxuries (as long as they are not adopted by the upper class). Basically, luxury appeals to everyone, if defined as something that is desirable and more than necessary and ordinary from his or her perspective. However, studies on the attitudes towards luxury usually refer to luxury as determined by the upper class. Consequently, the attitudes of respondents range from admiration to rejection (Reich 2005, p. 33), which often reflects their general opinion of the societal system. Besides that, the upper class also consists of different segments, which means that a variety of luxury tastes and lifestyles exists. Situational relativity: Finally, the definition of luxury should generally not consider any temporary or individual circumstances, but should be restricted to normal conditions. Accordingly, the basic definition of luxury may be complemented as follows: Luxury is anything that is desirable and which exceeds necessity and ordinariness. As a general rule, this is defined from a global perspective, for the present and for normal conditions. While the exclusivity of resources is evaluated by the entire society, the desirability of resources and the appearance of luxury are determined by the upper class. | Based on that, table 1 exemplifies some of the many resources that can be differentiated from luxury. Accordingly, theextended basic definition limits the scope of luxury from almost anything to a more reasonable level and therefore already helps to dissolve a large part of the controversies about its definition. Table 1: Examples of Non-Luxury Items| Example of Non-Luxury| Type of Relativity| Explanation|. Clean air| Regional relativity| A luxury in Jakarta, but not from the perspective of most people| Color TV| Temporal relativity| A luxury in the 1950’s, but not from today’s perspective| VW Polo| Economic relativity| A luxury for a student, but not from a gross-societal perspective| Gold teeth grill| Cultural relativity| A luxury in the hip-hop scene, but not from the perspective of the upper class| McDonald’s Hamburger| Situational relativity| Might be a luxury after a strict diet, but not under normal circumstances|. However, there are two limitations: First of all, the necessity-luxury continuum indicates that all luxuries are not equally luxurious, which means that there is also a hierarchical relativity. Consequently, it seems reasonable to distinguish different levels of luxury (see Kisabaka 2001, p. 120 et seq. ; and section 8. 4. 1). In addition, even though the extended basic definition limits the scope of luxury, it still covers a wide variety of resources such as musical talent, self-determination or Daikin air conditioning systems, which are not relevant within the field of luxury brand management research. Therefore, the scope of luxury will be limited further in the following chapter by differentiating the understandings of luxury by area of research. 2. The Major Understandings of Luxury The literature analysis suggests differentiating luxury definitions by area of research into three main categories, which will be explained below. 3. 1. The Philosophical-sociological Understanding of Luxury The proponents of a philosophical-sociological understanding of luxury concentrate mainly on the evolution of attitudes towards luxury and its societal benefits (e. g. Berry 1994; Mandeville 1724; Sombart 1922, p. 86 et seqq.) and on the changes in the appearance of luxury and preferences for luxury (e. g. Dohrn-van Rossum 2002; Fuehrer 2008, p. 185 et seqq. ; Koschel 2005 and Reitzle 2001, p. 26 et seqq. ). According to these research objectives, this understanding represents the broadest scope of luxury that can be referred to as luxuries or luxury resources. Examples include musical talent, time, and true love (see also Sombart 1922, p. 85). Luxuries are defined as follows: Luxuries correspond to the philosophical-sociological understanding and the broadest scope of luxury, comprising all resources which are desirable and exceed what is necessary and ordinary. | 2. 2. The Micro-economic Understanding of Luxury The proponents of a micro-economic understanding of luxury investigate the relationships between price and the demand for luxury (e. g. Chaudhuri 1998; Kemp 1998; Lipsey 1975, p. 107 et seqq. ; Poll 1980, p. 38), as well as between income and the demand for luxury (e. g. Deaton and Muellbauer 1980; Lancaster 1971, p. 68; Poll 1980, p. 30). There are also some researchers who focus on the moderating sociological effects (e. g. Bearden and Etzel 1982, Leibenstein 1950, Veblen 1899) and on the benefits of the luxury goods industry for the economy (e.g. Thomas 2007, p. 53 et seqq. ). In light of its research objectives, the micro-economic understanding of luxury represents a middle scope that is limited to goods that are suitable for exchange on the market. In microeconomics the term luxury goods was established for that and mainly refers to entire product categories (see Meffert and Lasslop 2003, p. 4; Reich 2005, p. 36). The marketability of micro-economic luxury represents its major difference from the philosophical-sociological understanding of luxury. According to Chaudhuri (1998, p.162), product categories such as barbecue and golf equipment are (still) regarded as luxury goods. The definition of luxury goods can be summarized as follows: Luxury goods correspond to the micro-economic understanding and the middle scope of luxury, comprising all goods which exceed what is necessary and ordinary, and are suitable for exchange on the market. | Luxury goods are distinguished from necessary or ordinary goods by consequence-related measures; thus the luxuriousness of any good is not determined by its characteristics, but by peoples’ reaction (changes in demand) to exogenous stimuli. These measures include price and income elasticity of demand (Poll 1980, p. 29). 2. 3. The Managerial Understanding of Luxury 2. 3. 1. Areas of Research The proponents of a managerial understanding of luxury focus on the development of business and in particular, on marketing strategy guidance for a relatively small group of luxury product manufacturers. The areas of research can be categorized into studies focusing on luxury brands (including products and industry segments) and on studies which rather focus on their consumers. The first group includes image analyses about luxury brands (e. g. Matthiesen and Phau 2005, Wong and Zaichkowsky 1999) and studies about the luxury brand identity (e. g. Dubois and Czellar 2002, Heine 2009a, 2010a,b, Heine and Trommsdorff 2010a). The existing studies about luxury consumer behavior focus on the characteristics of luxury consumers, their consumption preferences and on environmental influences affecting luxury consumption. Studies about luxury consumer characteristics cover consumers’ purchasing motives (e. g. Tsai 2005), attitudes (e. g. Dubois et al. 2005), values (e. g. Dubois and Duquesne 1993, Heine 2010a, Sukhdial et al.1995) and demographics (e. g. Dubois and Duquesne 1993). Results of these studies serve as a basis for the segmentation of luxury consumers (e. g. Dubois et al. 2005). Additionally, there are studies focusing on luxury consumer preferences (e. g. Nia and Zaichkowsky 2000, about country-of-origin preferences) and studies about environmental influences on luxury consumption incorporating the impact of reference groups (e. g. Bearden and Etzel 1982; Wiedmann et al. 2007), culture (e. g. Casaburi 2010), product types (e. g. social/private by Bearden and Etzel 1982) and situational factors (e. g.Dubois and Laurent 1996). On top of that, there is a growing interest in the phenomenon of counterfeit luxury products (e. g. Perez et al. 2010, Phan et al. 2010, Phan and Lu 2008, Phau and Teah 2008, 2009, Phau et al. 2009, Wilcox et al. 2009). 2. 3. 2. Scope of Luxury The managerial understanding represents the smallest scope of luxury. The major difference separating it from the micro-economic perspective is that the managerial understanding of luxury does not usually refer to entire product categories, but only to the best products of a category, or to products with certain characteristics. Accordingly, products that fall within the managerial scope of luxury should be referred to as luxury products. The broad definition of luxury products can be summarized as follows: Luxury products correspond to the managerial understanding and the smallest scope of luxury, comprising all products which exceed what is necessary and ordinary compared to the other products of their category. | The definition of luxury brands is closely linked to the definition of luxury products and usually refers to specific associations about their products’ characteristics. Accordingly, the broad definition of luxury brands is summarized as follows: Luxury brands are associated with products which exceed what is necessary and ordinary compared to the other products of their category. | These definitions allow one to state some typical examples of luxury products and brands including Louis Vuitton bags and Rolls-Royce automobiles. For the sake of simplicity, the luxury product business will be referred to as the luxury industry. The managerial scope of luxury becomes even clearer in comparison with the other understandings of luxury. This is not a horizontal differentiation (such as dog, cat and bird), but a vertical differentiation (such as dog, animal, living being), which refers to the relation between terms of different levels of abstraction (Eckes 1991, p. 120). As demonstrated in figure 1, luxury products constitute a subset of luxury goods, which, in turn, form a subset of luxuries. This means that the characteristics of luxuries also apply, to a large extent, to luxury products (see also Hoffmann 1986, p. 31 et seqq. ). 2. 3. 3. Limiting the Scope of Luxury. Despite its small scope in comparison to luxuries, the definition of luxury products still covers a wide variety of different products. Therefore, and according to the basic idea of definition by reduction sentences, the scope of luxury products is further limited by differentiating the major luxury market segments as follows: Luxury Products, Services and Real Estate: The managerial luxury understanding usually refers to movable assets (products in the classical sense), as the luxury industry was and is characterized by craftsmanship and engineering (Belz 1994, p.648; Berthon et al. 2009, p. 50). Beyond that, luxury services and luxury real estate form distinct luxury segments. Marketing knowledge about products offers a basis for other luxury segments, but still needs to be adapted to their specific characteristics. Branded vs. Unbranded Luxury Products: Unbranded luxury products are usually made on commission by craftsmen. Because of the high relevance of brands in the luxury segment, this paper considers only branded luxury products (see Kisabaka 2001, p.104; Vigneron and Johnson 2004, p. 486). Private vs. Public Luxury Products: Instead of public luxuries such as altar pieces or national monuments, the term luxury products usually refers to private luxury, which is owned by a person or a private organization (Sombart 1922, p. 86; see also McKinsey 1990, p. 13). B2B vs. B2C Luxury Products: B2C luxury products, also referred to as personal luxury products, are marketed to end consumers and can be used by a person to enhance his or her personal life (Sombart 1922, p.86; Reith and Meyer 2003, p. 10; Valtin 2004, p. 186). In contrast to that, there is a distinct B2B luxury segment, which includes luxury-specialized suppliers to luxury brands. One such supplier is Peter Bock, a manufacturer of nibs for luxury fountain pens. Founder-independent vs. Founder-dependent Luxury Products: This paper considers only founder-independent luxury products, which means that the existence of brands and the manufacturing of products should not depend on the life of their creators. The manufacturers of luxury products should possess a distinct brand personality and at least the capacity for infinite business operation. Although an artist could become a brand, these requirements are not fulfilled as he or she may only create founder-dependent products. Compared to other products, the luxury art market follows very specific rules and therefore forms a distinct luxury segment. The same is true for other industry segments such as (star) architect offices and the relatively complex and fast-changing market of (fashion) designer products. Uni-regional vs. Multi-regional Luxury Products: This paper disregards uni-regional luxury products, which are only available in specific regions. For instance, shopping in the KaDeWe is only possible in Berlin and spending the night in Le Bristol is only possible in Paris. However, many uni-regional luxury brands have the potential to become global. For instance, the luxury group Hilton developed the New York-based Waldorf Astoria into a global luxury hotel chain. Contemporary Luxury Products vs. Luxury Antiquities: With reference to temporal relativity (see above), only new products are considered. Luxury antiquities (including antique cars) form a distinct luxury segment. Accordingly, the broad definition of luxury products may be complemented as follows: Luxury products correspond to the managerial understanding and the smallest scope of luxury not comprising services or real estate, but products which exceed what is necessary and ordinary compared to the other products of their category. These products are branded, founder-independent, multi-regional, contemporary and possessed or used by a person to enhance his or her personal life. | Differentiating between the various understandings of luxury and major luxury market segments helps to further limit the scope of luxury in the area of management studies. Based on that, table 1 exemplifies some of the many luxuries that can be differentiated from luxury products. However, this is still not enough to distinguish clearly between ordinary and luxury products. Therefore, the broad definition of luxury products needs to be specified further, which will be addressed in the subsequent chapter. 3. Luxury Products 3. 1. The Definition of Luxury Products Although the term luxury products is broadly defined and therefore basically comprehensible (see previous section), it still needs to be operationalized because it is not yet clear which products are actually more than necessary and ordinary compared to the other products of their category. The broad definition of luxury products can be modified and further specified by an operational definition. For this purpose, adequate indicators for a term need to be determined. According to the dimensional analysis, it was decided to operationalize luxury products by their characteristics. The operationalization relies on a literature analysis and an empirical study (as outlined in the paper). The results suggest that consumers perceive that luxury products have six major characteristics including price, quality, aesthetics, rarity, extraordinariness and symbolism. These constitutive characteristics and their typical sub-categories are explained in detail in one of the following chapters. In that way, the operationalization helps to decide for most products if they are part of what is meant by the term luxury product (see also Kromrey 2009, p. 110). The definition of luxury products can be summarized as follows: Luxury products have more than necessary and ordinary characteristics compared to other products of their category, which include their relatively high level of price, quality, aesthetics, rarity, extraordinariness, and symbolic meaning. | Comparative terms such as luxury rely on continuous characteristics (as explained in the paper). Therefore, the major characteristics of luxury products can be considered as dimensions ranging from a minimum level that is also necessary for non-luxury products to a maximum level that corresponds to the highest form of luxury. As these major characteristics must apply to virtually all luxury products at least to some degree, they are therefore referred to as constitutive characteristics. Although luxury products require a relatively high rating for all of the major characteristics, there still exists a wide range of possible ratings within the luxury segment. According to the principles of the prototype theory, luxury products therefore differ in the degree to which they are qualified as representatives of their category. The luxuriousness of a product increases when the level of at least one of these characteristics increases. Not surprisingly, the luxury level therefore is one of the major means of differentiation for luxury products and brands (Esteve and Hieu-Dess 2005). The characteristics of luxury products are not independent of each other.