Leadership - Goal-path Theory - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2161 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Nowadays, one of the most respectful theories of leadership is the goal-path theory. Developed by Robert House, the goal-path theory is a model of contingency that extracts the key elements of the investigation performed by the Ohio University about the initial structure, consideration and motivational theory of the expectations (House, 1971). The theory , that has as predecessors the work s of Evans in 1970, House in 1971, House and Dessler in 1974 and House and Mitchell in 1974, and that emerged as an alternative to the behavioral model of leadership, It is based on how leaders motivate their followers to perform better and became more satisfied with their work (Evans, 1974). It tries to clarify how the conduct of the leader influences on the satisfaction and performance of the subordinates, similar to the expectation theory of Victor Vroom (Van Eerde, Thierry, 1996). Also explaining how the behavior of the leader affects the satisfaction and performance and st ating that the perceived value of a reward produce certain behaviors, well known also as the expectation and the preference for those results is called by Vroom as valence (Vroom, 1964). The essence of the path-goal theory is that the leaders role is not to assist followers in attaining their goals or to provide direction or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or the organization (House, 1996). The path- goal term is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify and clear the road to help their followers to move from where they are to a level in which they achieve their work goals and make the journey more enjoyable by reducing the obstacles and dangers. According to this theory, the behavior of a leader is acceptable to subordinates to the extent that it is seen by them as immediate satisfaction or as a means of future satisfactionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s source. The behavior of a leader is motivational in the level that leader makes the subordinate to require satisfaction for an effective performance, the leader provide instruction, guidance, support and rewards that are required for effective performance (Ashour, Johns, 1983). To prove these statements, House identified four leadership behaviors. The managerial leader allows subordinates know what is expected of them, schedules the work to be performed and gives specific guidelines how to accomplish tasks. This is parallel to the dimension of Ohio State on initiating structure. A friendly leader shows support and concern for the needs of their subordinates; this essentially stands for the dimension of the consideration of the University of Ohio. The leader that participates consults with subordinates and uses their suggestions before make a decision. . The achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects subordinates to perform at their highest level. In contrast to the Fiedler standpoint of the behavior of the leader, House assume d that leaders are flexible (Schuler, 1976).The theory of goal-path then means that the same leader can display any or all of these behaviors depending on the situation. The theory proposes two kinds of situational or contingency variables that affect and level the relationship between leadership behavior and outcome, those in the environment that are beyond the control of the subordinate, as in task structure, the formal system of authority and group work and those that are part of the subordinate personal characteristics as in locus of control, experience and perceived capacity (Schriesheim, Schriesheim, 1980). Environmental factors determine the type of leader behavior required as a complement if the results of the subordinate will be maximized, while the personal characteristics determine how the environment and the behavior of the leader will be interpreted. Thus, the theory proposes that the behavior of leader will not be effective if it becomes redundant with the sources of the environment structure or inconsistent with the characteristics of the subordinates. Many concepts derived from the theory of path-goal, since the ones that states that directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when the tasks are ambiguous or when tension are highly structured and well designed, the same it might be perceived as redundant to employees. high experience; to the ones that states that directive leadership leads to higher employee satisfaction only where there is a substantial conflict in the workgroup, also stating that the subordinates with internal locus of control, those who believe that control their own destiny, will be more satisfied with a participation style than the ones with external locus of control, that will be more satisfied with a managerial style. The research used to validate these concepts is generally encouraging. The evidence supports the logic underlying the theory. That is, the performance and the satisfaction of the employee are pro bably positively influenced when the leader compensates for missing skills from the employee or the work environment. However, the leader who dedicates time explaining the tasks when they are already clear or when the employee has the ability and experience to handle them without interference, may prove ineffective because the worker will see this type of management as redundant or even as an insulting behavior. The path-goal model differs from the situational model of Hersey and Blanchard in 1969, in which the leader must adapt to their level of development of the subordinates, or from contingency theory, that seeks to match the style of leader with specific situational variables. In the model path-goal the leaderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s style relates to the characteristics of the subordinate and the type of work environment. House and Mitchell argue that a leader can display any or all the styles according to the type of situation (House, 1996).Those more effective leaders, as we me ntioned before, will be the ones that can adapt their style to the specific situations. A derivative research performed by Wofford and Liska in 1993, compiling more than 120 experiments, found that the results of the different studies varied notably if a different instrument of measurement is used , even when valuing the same dimensions (Wofford, Liska, 1994). They also found that the characteristics of the job influenced highly on the conduct and style of leadership and on the performance of the subalterns. When situational changes occur, leaders are expected to change their conduct with respect to the follower (Ivancevich, 1997). The leader must present ability to identify which behavior is the most effective based on the situation that comes their way, and may arise from the type of follower they face (Ivancevich, 1997). Therefore they identified that the key factors in this theory are the behavior and situational factors, and that the correspondence established between both factors will result in effective leadership emphasizing again, that the primary role of the leader is to motivate their followers clarify the ways that help them achieve their objectives or goals (Hogg, 2012). In terms of supporting conduct, it will have more positive effects when the employee is in need of emotional or philological support when facing a task. The research is based by dividing groups of subalterns in conditions of poor clarity, interesting, but without structure; and conditions of high prediction or routines. For the first case, the researchers will find positive effects in motivation and performance only if the leader shows a directive conduct and the contrary effect will be the result of the leader showing a supporting conduct or consideration. In terms of the empirical support of the theory, it is proved that the supporting conduct is generally linked to positive attitudes of the subordinates under difficult tasks, for the directive conduct the results are alw ays less consistent. Kerr and Jermier extended the line of research, to the extent of the substitute for the leadership, where they focused their investigation on the conditions under the leadership is unnecessary due to the capacity of the subaltern, the clarity of the organizational system and procedures (Kerr, Jermier, 1978). However some researchers have revived the hypothesis derived from path-goal theory and has found minimal empirical support (Podsakoff, Organ, 1986). In conclusion, a manager centered and focused on his subordinates will not only offer great salaries and promotions but he will also offer support, encouragement, security and respect. This type of manager will be also sensible to the differences in between his teams and he will adapt the rewards to each subordinate. The subalterns of a manager oriented with the path-goal theory will know exactly what level of productivity or performance they need to reach to obtain bonus, raises, or promotions (Vecchio, , Justin, Pearce, 2008). For the path-goal model is important to define the objectives first, in order to establish a future flow of great performance for the long and short term. It is important to mention that this definition will depend of the internal faith of the leader, based on his capacities and competences (Stinson, Johnson, 1975). Coincidentally with the other situational theories, the leader must be aware of the reasons why leadership continuously changes, for which he should be prepared to, develop a wide variety of responses to efficiently allow each situation that he will experience (Schriesheim, Chester, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 1977). The future prospects of the path-goal theory point in the direction of further research leading to strengthen refine and expand their premises incorporating some additional moderating variables and shed their behavioral bias. However it is possible that the assigned rewards not meet the expectations of subordinates and that the resou rces are not entirely adequate and sufficient for the goal, it can be affirmed given the increasingly strong tendency to achieve higher levels of productivity with resources scarce (Fulk, Wendler, 1982). Thus we have from how leaders motivate their followers, leadership can be positive if it is associated with rewards or negative if the motivation is based on punishment, not to mention the tendency or propensity to prioritize, this classification at all simplistic answers to behavioral character is assumed to understand motivation as a stimulus that determines behavior (Ivancevich, Matteson, Freedman, Phillips, 1990).There is a great necessity to have with a leadership theory that take in consideration context variables in order to know which actions the leader shall take and which ones he should not (Triandis, 1993). Although this model indicates logically a play form of leadership, it is not entirely effective for all organizations or for all types of people who are involved in c arrying out the work. That is why efforts have been made to find valid classifications for leadership styles, understanding the style as a set of behaviors that leader exhibit and the particular way they are perceived by their subordinates, that is in fact the leadership in the practice. The theoretical effort to attribute classifications in path theory is a resource for the leader to choose or modify their particular style to influence in other way, leading to different behaviors, however, analysis has realized that leaders do not maintain permanent and one-line fashion style, in fact it changes according to the circumstances, raising a claim for more research (Greene, 1974). . House, R. J. (1971). A path goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative science quarterly, 321-339 Evans, M. G. (1974). Extensions of a path-goal theory of motivation. Stinson, J. E., Johnson, T. W. (1975). The path-goal theory of leadership: A partial test and suggested refinement. A cademy of Management Journal, 18(2), 242-252 Schriesheim, J. F., Schriesheim, C. A. (1980). A Test of the pathÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ goal theory of leadership and some suggested directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 33(2), 349-370. Ashour, A. S., Johns, G. (1983). Leader influence through operant principles: A theoretical and methodological framework.Human Relations,36(7), 603-626 Schuler, R. S. (1976). Participation with supervisor and subordinate authoritarianism: A path-goal theory reconciliation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 320-325. Wofford, J. C., Liska, L. Z. (1994). Path-goal theories of leadership: A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 19(4), 857-876. Podsakoff, P. M., Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of management, 12(4), 531-544 Kerr, S., Jermier, J. M. (1978). Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement. Organizational behavior and human perfo rmance, 22(3), 375-403. Hogg, M. A., van Knippenberg, D., Rast, D. E. (2012). Intergroup leadership in organizations: Leading across group and organizational boundaries. Academy of Management Review, 37(2), 232-255 Ivancevich, J. M., Matteson, M. T., Freedman, S. M., Phillips, J. S. (1990). Worksite stress management interventions. American Psychologist, 45(2), 252 House, R. J. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 323-352. Schriesheim, Chester, and Mary Ann Von Glinow. (1977). The path-goal theory of leadership: A theoretical and empirical analysis. Academy of Management Journal 20.3, 398-405. Vecchio, R. P., Justin, J. E., Pearce, C. L. (2008). The utility of transactional and transformational leadership for predicting performance and satisfaction within a pathÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ goal theory framework. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81(1), 71-82. V an Eerde, W., Thierry, H. (1996). Vrooms expectancy models and work-related criteria: A meta-analysis. Journal of applied psychology, 81(5), 575. Fulk, J., Wendler, E. R. (1982). Dimensionality of leaderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ subordinate interactions: A pathà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ goal investigation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30(2), 241-264. Greene, C. N. (1974). The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership: A Replication and an Analysis of Causality. In Academy of Management Proceedings (Vol. 1974, No. 1, pp. 47-47). Academy of Management. Vroom, V. (1964). Expectancy theory. Triandis, H. C. (1993). The contingency model in cross-cultural perspective Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Leadership Goal-path Theory" essay for you Create order

Similarities Between The Lottery And The Story Of The Hour

The Lottery by Shirley Jackson, and The Story of the Hour by Kate Chopin, both have resemblances and appears differently in relation to the elements of writing. Especially, when the authors use foreshadowing to control the demeanors of the stories and add irony to intentionally lie to the reader. Both stories have comparable qualities and stands out from respects to their parts of the story, especially the writers usage of irony and mood. Irony is the major theme in â€Å"The Lottery†. This story is about a town stacked with snobby show-boaters that have stuck to their tradition of a lottery, despite the way that it is an awful custom and to some degree upsetting to the overall public in the town. The characters are respecting a tradition†¦show more content†¦She asks for pity, yet the townspeople are strict with keeping with their traditions and her pleas of kindness neglect to draw in anybodys consideration and she is stoned to death. The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin is another story that is stacked with incongruity. The incongruity in this story is found in Louises response to the news of her better half passing. She cries in her sisters arms, by then observes her life partners destiny and goes to her space to be confined from everybody. While alone in her room, she watches out the window and sees that the trees and blossoms are sprouting with spring outside. She understands that there is another life for her, much the same as there is new life for trees and plants after the nippy and energy of winter. She stays there and starts to consider the new life before her. All through her whole marriage, she has felt like a detainee, and now thoughts of autonomy start to surge her vision. This is fascinating considering a starting late, widowed lady ought to grieve the loss of her dead spouse, not fantasizing about the new life she will have as a solitary and a liberated individual. She says a quick plea to have a lon g life. There is incongruity here because her plea is incapable. Louise does not live long by any mean, truly, she passes away a few minutes a short time later. As the story closes, we see Louise strolling around the stairs with a reestablished look on life. Subsequently, when she gets to the base of theShow MoreRelatedUtopia, Dystopia, Two Worlds1630 Words   |  7 Pagesor environmentally degraded one.† (Merriam-Webster) Many authors have created stories of about what a perfect, or imperfect, world looks like to them. There are two stories that come to mind that explains the polar opposite of two worlds. One of the stories that will be discussed is â€Å"The Lottery† by Shirley Jackson. The other story will be â€Å"The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas† by Ursula Le Guinn. 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Early Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia

We can only speculate about early religion. When the ancient cave painters drew animals on the walls of their caves, this may have been part of a belief in the magic of animism. By painting the animal, the animal would appear; by painting it speared, success in the hunt might be guaranteed. Neanderthals buried their dead with objects, presumably so they could be used in the afterlife. By the time mankind was banding together in cities or city-states, structures for the gods—like temples—dominated the landscape. Four Creator Gods Ancient Mesopotamians attributed the forces of nature to the workings of divine forces. Since there are many forces of nature, so there were many gods and goddesses, including four creator gods. These four creator gods, unlike the Judaeo-Christian concept of God, were NOT there from the beginning. The forces of Taimat and Abzu, who had emerged from a primordial chaos of water, created them. This isnt unique to Mesopotamia; the ancient Greek creation story also tells of primordial beings who emerged from Chaos. The highest of the four creator gods was the sky-god An, the over-arching bowl of heaven.Next came Enlil who could either produce raging storms or act to help man.Nin-khursag was the earth goddess.The fourth god was Enki, the water god and patron of wisdom. These four Mesopotamian gods did not act alone, but consulted with an assembly of 50, which is called the Annunaki. Innumerable spirits and demons shared the world with the Annunaki.​ How the Gods Helped Mankind The gods bound people together in their social groups and were believed to have provided what they needed to survive. The Sumerians developed stories and festivals to explain and harness help for their physical environment. Once a year came the new year and with it, the Sumerians thought the gods decided what would happen to mankind for the coming year. Priests Otherwise, the gods and goddesses were more concerned with their own feasting, drinking, fighting, and arguing. But they could be prevailed upon to help on occasion if ceremonies were performed to their liking. The priests were responsible for the sacrifices and rituals that were essential for the help of the gods. In addition, property belonged to the gods, so priests administered it. This made the priests valuable and important figures in their communities. And so, the priestly class developed.

The Black Civil Rights Movement - 2150 Words

The Black Civil Rights Movement of the 20th century pushed for and achieved different levels equality through its many prominent activists. Prior to the movement, millions of Black Americans faced brutal abuse and segregation with little to no government action taking place against such wrongdoings. The movement included passionate advocates for black equality such as Rosa Parks, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X. These civil and human rights activists inspired millions of Americans to join in the cause for justice and equality for all through their many unique styles. Malcolm X was one prominent civil rights activist known for his fiery demeanor and controversial beliefs. The underlining aspect in Malcolm’s life was that he adamantly believed in was the importance to the devotion of Islam. Through the religion Islam Malcolm X identified himself as a human being and used his knowledge to inspire others. Malcolm X’s relationship with Islam advanced him as a civil rights activist among black Americans, which promoted social change. In his childhood, Malcolm X experienced blatant racism towards his family. Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little in Omaha Nebraska on May 19, 1925. He was the son of Baptist Minister Earl Little and his mother Louise Norton Little and one of four children. Malcolm Little’s father preached that black Americans deserved the same rights as white Americans, but as a result of the times blacks made less money and were persecuted by the KKK. MalcolmShow MoreRelatedThe Black Civil Rights Movement1120 Words   |  5 Pagessociety. From women to gay rights but it is undeniable that the black civil rights was the bloodiest and most violent among them. Two methods were used to bring message to the people: the violent or the non-violent way. 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Questions On Specific Behaviors Related Behaviors Essay

My 25 specific behaviors:1.)Woke up/got out of bed, 2.)Went to the bathroom, 3.)Brushed my teeth, 4.)Ate breakfast (cereal), 5.)Did my hair, 6.)Did my makeup, 7.)Got dressed, 8.)Drove to class, 9.)Walked to class, 10.)Attended class, 11.)Took a test in stats, 12.)walked to my car, 13.)Drove to the store, 14.)Shopped, 15.)Drove home, 16.)Did laundry, 17.)Ate lunch, 18.)Did dishes, 19.)Cleaned the kitchen and bathroom, 20.)Pack clothes for vacation , 21.)Did homework , 22.)Cooked dinner, 23.)Ate dinner, 24.)Showered, 25.)Watched tv/ played on phone, 26.)Brushed teeth , 27.)Put on pajamas, 28.)Went to bed. I am going to separate the behaviors into two groups; biological and stimulus/social motives. 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First is definitionsRead MoreRational Choice, Deterrence, Incapacitation and Just Desert Essay1476 Words   |  6 PagesDeterrence, Incapacitation and Just Desert In seeking to answer the question, Why do people engage in deviant and/or criminal acts?, many researchers, as well as the general public, have begun to focus on the element of personal choice. An understanding of personal choice is commonly based in a conception of rationality or rational choice. These conceptions are rooted in the analysis of human behavior developed by the early classical theorists, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy

Debut message free essay sample

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Income Tax Implications

Questions: Part 11. Allan and Betty were living and working in Melbourne. They decided on a 'tree change', sold their Melbourne home and purchased a large country house on a 10 hectare block in entral Victoria. Betty works part-time as an accountant and Allan as a locum doctor. Allan is popular with the elderly patients in the town and regularly is given home-made cakes and scones, along with his fee. On one occasion he treated a local wine maker's dog for snake bite when the vet was unavailable and was given a dozen bottles of Lonarch Brae shiraz in appreciation. The wine had a retail value of $360.2. Allan and Betty enjoy gardening. They plan to establish a few hectares of grape vines and begin growing vegetables. They attend a continuing education course on organic farming and find in their second year they have a surplus of produce. Betty started making marking marmalade and relish using her mother's recipes. Initially she gave them to neighbours but they became so popular that she opended a stall at the Newtown Growers Market held on the second Sunday of every month. Allan sold some of the excess to a local supermarket and now regularly supplies three retailers with sweet potatoes and pumpkin. They don't keep records as they never intended to make a profit but estimmate that in agood month gross receipts could be $500 to $600.3. Their neighbours have a citrus orchard and throughout the year vegetables are swapped for oranges and mandarins. This seems like such a good idea Allan and Betty decide to set up a 'barter' system in the area. To join the system a person must pay an up-front, one-off fee of $50 to Allan and Betty as a charge for the keeping of administrative records. Thereafter people register their goods or services to be bartered. For examples, Suzie is a retired hairdresser and will provided hairdressing services at her home. No money changes hands. Suize would receive a credit to her account of 15 to 20 'barts' that she can exchange for goods or services of equal value from other registered participants in the schemes (fruit, vegetables, child minding, lawn mowing etc.).Required:1. Advise Allan and Betty of any income tax implications arising in para 1,2, and 3 above.2. Advise the participants in the barter scheme of any income tax implications. Part 2 Nicole Grownman is an Australian actress who has had a number of roles in films and guest appearances in serials. During the year the following events occurred: 1. Nicole was offered a role in a telemovie set in the 1950s. She was required to put on 10 kilograms to play the part offered and would be awarded the role only if she put on weight. Nicole increased her food intake dramatically, dining-out several times a week and eating fast food. She estimated she spent $1,000 on food that she would not normally have eaten. She was paid $50,000 for her role. 2. As a result of her weight gain Nicole had to buy new clothes at a cost of $2000. At the end of filming she wanted to loose weight and get back into shape so hired a dietician at a cost of $1,000 and a personal trainer ($2,500) and spent a week at a health clinic ($1,500). 3. Nicole was paid $2,000 by Womans World for an interview in which she spoke about the new telemovie as well as her personal life. She donated the money to the Royal Childrens Hospital. 4. The telemovie received critical acclaim and Nicole was offered a small role in a Hollywood movie. Under the contract she was to receive $AU20,000. She flew first class to the United States at a cost of $5,000; economy class would have been $2,000. After filming she spent a week visiting agents in Hollywood in the hope of securing more roles. Nicole regarded the week as a working holiday and she treated herself to five star accommodation at a cost of $6,000. 5. A well know gossip magazine Eye Spy published a story about Nicole that contained a number of untruths. Ordinarily she would not have bothered about such thing but with her career blossoming she was concerned that her reputation might be tarnished and future roles lost. She spent $10,000 in legal fees, sued the magazine for libel and was successful in securing damages of $50,000. 6. A short break in acting followed and at her managers suggestion Nicole paid $1,000 to a voice coach to improve her voice projection. 7. In the expectation that her career was to take off at last, Nicole shifted to a rented town house. She specifically selected a two bedroom unit so that one room could be set aside for exclusive use as a study/office. There she could read scripts, deal with correspondence and meditate. Her manager suggested she would be entitled to a tax deduction for an apportionment of the rent. Required: Advise Nicole of the taxation implications of the receipts and payments. Answers: Part AThere are many forms of taxation in Australia. Individuals and companies in Australia are required to pay taxes or charges to local, state, and federal government level. The taxes are basically collected in order to provide funds for the payment of public services and transfer payments, distribution for economic wealth.The most significant form of taxation in Australia is Income tax which is collected by the federal government through the Australian Taxation Office (ATO). Federal government also collects Australian GST revenue and after the collection process it so paid the states under a formula that is determined by the Commonwealth Grants Commission for distribution.The most significant source of revenue in Australia is the taxes on individuals which are imposed by the federal government. The state governments do not impose income taxes in Australia.Personal income taxes in Australia are imposed on the basis of personal income of the individual and thus the progressive basis .Australia does not provide for heavy taxation system and thus maintains a low tax burden in comparison to other wealthy, developed nations. There are various types of taxes in Australia under which it divides the burden of tax equally between the poor and rich. 1. Australias taxation system is having personal income tax as the most important source of income that is why it is important to understand what is meant by income. Income can be earned by way of personal exertion (by working) and it can also be earned from investment. Income is always in the form of money or goods and services. 2. Here, Allan is a doctor by profession. He is receiving gifts along with his prescribed fees. As per the terms of the law amounts which are received as gifts may or may not treated as income. However, gifts may be taxable if they are part of the business activity. In this case Allan treated wine makers dog where he got dozens of wine bottles as gift thus as per the provisions of WET, Wine is threshold and thus wine producer has to pay WET so there will be no liability of WET on Allan. 3. Here, Allan and Batty had started selling excess produce of their garden in a local supermarket and retailers on regular basis thus they are having access to the income on regular basis. The gardening is not their hobby and they are selling the excess produce to the market on regular basis. Thus they have to assess the income and pay tax on the assessed income. They also need to maintain adequate records in regard to selling the produce in the market. They should also make a reasonable estimate of their tax payable. They also require taking assistance from ATO to reconstruct their records in order to make reasonable estimates. However they will have to bear penalty that is imposed by the law for non maintenance of appropriate records. 4. Bartering means the exchange of goods or services for other goods or services without exchange of money and thus money is not involved in the barter system and thus they are managed by the trade exchanges. Under the case study Allan and Batty provides trade exchange services to other people and thus keeps records of the transaction of the members thus the adequate amounts of debit and credit of the members. An online fee of $50 is being charged for battering which is taxable as they are charging fee for their services and as per the above definition of income it should be taxable under GST 2004/04 rulings. Further, Income tax implications of the Barter transactions are same as that related to the cash or credit transactions. Thus barter transactions are also assessable and deductable while calculating taxable income. 5. Income tax provisions of barter, cash and credit transactions are same. A liability for taxation including GST arises wherever a member of barter system makes a sale to another member who is subject to tax. Payment is made in the form of kind under barter system payment and thus money is not involved in the transaction. Maintenance if debiting and crediting of account is done in order to keep a check on the transactions between the members of the barter system. The member conducting a sale of the product is credited with his account and the member who purchases is debited with his account with the equal value of goods or services. According to the rules of laws, Fair market value of the product or service is being used as the value of those product or service in monetary terms. Fair market value clearly reflects the arms length price or it money value. Fair market value is the value which is charged by the seller in case the product is sold to a stranger or the services are provided to a stranger. Most of the business-oriented countertrade organisations use a specified rate for converting credit units into an Australian dollar equivalent but here Allan and Batty are converting it into Barts. Each credit unit is having a value equal to one Australian dollar. As per the laws of taxation, GST, income tax payment must be remitted and converted in the Australian currency. Payment in dollars is accepted by the other members. Tax invoice is also required for a barter transaction as it is required for other transactions. But the tax invoice must contain or comply with all the usual requirements of a taxable invoice. Reference: Australian Taxation Office, 2014, Amounts not included as Income, Income and Deductions; Available at: https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Income-and-deductions/Income-you-must-declare/Amounts-not-included-as-income/ Part B The solution provides for the tax implications of the various events that occurred during the year for Australian actress, Nicole who has performed a number of roles in films and has appeared as guest in various serials. 1. Event: For a telemovie set of 1950, Nicole was asked to gain weight of 10 kilograms to play the role and would be given the role only if she does so. For the same Nicole agreed and increased her diet and spent $ 1000 for the same. She was paid $ 50,000 for the same. Issue: Will the $ 1000 spent be allowed as deduction? Discussion for Tax implication: As per the provisions of the Australian Income Tax provisions, Nicole is a professional as per the provisions of Australian Income tax laws if a person performs or appears in a film, on a tape or disc, or in a television or radio broadcast is covered in the definition of special professional. [1] Being in the above case, Nicole Grownman is an Australian actress working in films and guest appearances in serials is covered in the definition of special professionals. As per the provisions following will be considered in assessable income for the special professional- royalties from copyright of a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, and income from endorsements, advertisements, interviews, commentating and any similar service Rewards and prizes Income from a patent for an invention. [2] Conclusion In light to the above provisions the actress has earned $50,000 from the role that she has played in the film. So this $50,000 will consider while calculating the assessable income of Nicole Grownman. However, $1,000 will not be allowed as deduction being the actress does not have any specific prove that this expenditure is being made to the above mentioned revenue. 2. Event: As a result of her weight gain Nicole had to buy new clothes at a cost of $2000. At the end of filming she wanted to lose weight and get back into shape so hired a dietician at a cost of $1,000 and a personal trainer ($2,500) and spent a week at a health clinic ($1,500). Issue: Will deduction be allowed? Discussion on Tax Implications: As per the provisions of income tax laws any personal expenditure made by the professional will not be considered as allowable expenditure while calculating the assessable income of the assessee. In the given case, Nicole brought new clothes at a cost of $2000, spends $1000 on dietician, $2500 on a personal trainer and spent a week at a health clinic worth $1500. All these expenditure made by the actress is being done in order to keep her fit. All these expenditures are personal in nature and should and not allowed as allowable expenditure. Conclusion: Being the expenses personal in nature, deduction will not be allowed. 3. Nicole was paid $2,000 by Womans World for an interview in which she spoke about the new telemovie as well as her personal life. She donated the money to the Royal Childrens Hospital. Tax Implications As per the provision of Australian tax laws any gift or donation made to organisations that have the status of deductible gift recipients (DGRs) s allowed as allowable deduction under income tax laws. However, four conditions must be met: The gift must be made to a deductible gift recipient. The gift must truly be a gift. A gift is voluntary transfer of money or property from which no material benefit is received. The gift must be covered by one of the gift types. The most common gift is money but deductions may be claimed for other types of gifts such as property or shares. The gift must comply with any relevant gift conditions. [3] In the given case, the actress has donated the amount to Royal Childrens Hospital. The hospital is covered under the definition of deductible gift recipients under Australian income tax laws. [4] Hence, the donation made by actress will be allowed as allowable expense for her being the same is covered in terms of above stated provision. 4. Event: The Telemovie received critical acclaim and Nicole was offered a small role in a Hollywood movie. Under the contract she was to receive $AU20, 000. She flew first class to the United States at a cost of $5,000; economy class would have been $2,000. After filming she spent a week visiting agents in Hollywood in the hope of securing more roles. Nicole regarded the week as a working holiday and she treated herself to five star accommodation at a cost of $6,000. Issue: Will she be eligible for deduction of the extra week spending? Discussion on Tax implication As per the provisions of income tax laws any personal expenditure made by the professional will not be considered as allowable expenditure while calculating the assessable income of the assessee. In the given case, she spent $5,000 travelling to United States and $6,000 staying in a five star hotel, both of these is personal expenditure and will not be considered as allowable expenses. In this case, Nicole earned $20,000 in Hollywood. As per the provisions of law, if you continue to remain an Australian resident while working overseas, you must declare your worldwide income in your Australian tax return, even if tax was being paid out in the country where you earned the income. Being, in this case, she earned $20,000 other side Australia, she needs to disclose the same to the authorities. [5] Conclusion: Deduction will not be allowed for the expenses incurred being personal in nature and Nicole will have to disclose in her return the income of $ 20,000 earned. 5. Event: A story is published by the well-known magazine Eye Spy for Nicole which contained a number of untruths. Since, her career is blossoming she is concerned about her repute and loss of future roles. She has spent $10,000 in legal fees, sued the magazine for libel and was successful in securing damages of $50,000. Issue: Taxability of $ 50,000 damages received and the $ 10,000 legal fees paid? Tax Implications In lieu of the provisions of the Australian Income tax law, any benefits derived as a consequence of any legal suit will be taxable in the hands of the recipient. However, the tax benefit is only available if: The full details of the reasons and circumstances leading to you incurring the legal expenses are provided Copies of any documentation in relation to the circumstances - such as, court documents, etc. are provided. Proof that how are these expenses relevant to your gaining or producing of assessable income is provided Proof of making the payment is available. In the given case, the magazine publisher Eye-Spy has written some untrue facts about the actress and hence, she filed the legal suit against the magazine and the decision of the court was in her favour. As a consequence, the former paid Nicole $50,000 to compensate the damages. Nicole had incurred $ 10,000 as a legal fees in the complete court procedures. Conclusion In light to the above provisions, $50,000 will be taxable and if she meets out the above conditions related to the legal expenses, she will be allowed to avail deduction for the $ 10,000 incurred. 6. Event: For a short break in acting, Nicole Paid $ 1,000 to a voice coach for improvement of voice projection. Issue: Will $ 1,000 be allowed as deduction? Whether the same is a private or career related expense? Discussion of Tax Implications As per the provisions of the Australian Tax, any expense incurred by a professional in the capacity of improvement of him/herself professionally is allowed as deduction. In the given case, Nicole had incurred $ 1,000 for improvement in voice projection, which can be considered as an expense for professional growth. Conclusion Hence, the above expense incurred is allowed as an allowable expense in light of the above provisions. 7. Event: Nicole shifted to a rented house in town and has specifically selected a two bedroom unit so that one room could be utilized exclusively as study/office where she could read script and deal with correspondence and meditate. Issue: Will she be entitled for a tax deduction for an apportionment of the rent used for business purpose? Discussion on Tax Implications Considering the provisions of the Australian Tax laws, for the rental expenses incurred by the assessee for a rented premise which will be used for the business purposes will be treated as allowable expenses. In the given case, Nicole has specifically selected a two bedroom unit so that one room could be set aside for exclusive use as a study/office where she could read scripts, deal with correspondence and meditate. Hence, in this case one room is used by Nicole for personal purpose and the other for business purpose. Conclusion: Hence, in the light of the provisions of the Australian Income Tax, deduction will be allowed for the proportionate the rent paid for the room used for business / office purpose. Reference: 1. Australian Taxation Office, 2014, Income Averaging for Special Professionals 2013-2014; Available at: https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Tax-return/2014/In-detail/Publications/Income-averaging-for-special-professionals-2013-14/?page=1#Who_is_a_special_professional_ 2. Australian Taxation Office, 2014, Taxable Professional Income; Available at: https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Tax-return/2014/In-detail/Publications/Income-averaging-for-special-professionals-2013-14/?page=3#Taxable_professional_income 3. Australian Taxation Office, 2014, Gifts and Donations; Available at: https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Income-and-deductions/Deductions-you-can-claim/Gifts-and-donations/ 4. The Royal Childrens Hospital Foundation, 2014, Legal Status and Privacy Policy; Available at: https://rchfoundation.org.au/?page=Legal-and-Privacy 5.Australian Taxation office, 2014, International Taxa on Individuals; Available at: https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/International-tax-for-individuals/ 6.Australian Taxation Office, 2013, ATO advice and Guidance Legal Expenses; Available at: https://www.ato.gov.au/General/ATO-advice-and-guidance/In-detail/Private-rulings/Supporting-documents/Income-tax-deductions/Legal-expenses/